In a study of 115 interactions between humpback whales and killer whales, scientists found that humpback whales were the species to initiate the conflict a majority of the time, but that the killer whales were almost exclusively attacking and preying on fellow mammals in those incidences (as opposed to preying on fish). These scientists hypothesized that perhaps the humpback whales heard the distress sounds of fellow mammals and responded with the attitude of reciprocity altruism without knowing which species was actually being targeted. These whales did continue to interfere in these cases when other species were being attacked, which rules out any motivation for their genetic material being passed on (as in kin selection or even reciprocity altruism).

These examples baffle the idea of survival of the fittest, first introduced by Charles Darwin in his On the Origin of the Species. The treatise on natural selection brought the question of fitness to the forefront. What makes an animal the fittest of its species and the most likely to pass on its genetic material? Fitness as it pertains to biology is simply reproductive success and ability to adapt to a species' specific environment. Therefore, this doesn't always correlate to speed or strength or even predation- things like mimicry, colorful displays or sneak fertilization. In this vein, perhaps generosity, even true altruism, could contribute to fitness in ways scientists have yet to truly explain.

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